David Crystal's Introduction to Language
Glossary
This glossary contains the key language and linguistic terms used in the DVD lectures. You can test yourself on these terms using the flashcards.
A
abbreviation: A shortened form of a word
accent: A way of talking which signals where you come from. Also, a mark above a letter, showing its pronunciation
accommodation: Adjustments that people make to their speech influenced by the speech of those they are talking to
acoustic phonetics: The branch of phonetics that studies the physical properties of speech sounds
active vocabulary: The words that someone actually used in speech or writing; contrasts with passive vocabulary
active voice: A type of sentence in which the subject performs the action and the object receives the action, as in ‘The cat chased the mouse’; contrasts with passive voice
adjective: A word that identifies an attribute of a noun, such as ‘red’ in ‘the red chair’
adverb: A word whose main function is to specify the kind of action expressed by a verb, such as ‘quickly’ in ‘She ran quickly’
affix: A meaningful element, not itself a word, that is attached to another element to make a more complex word; see also prefixes and suffixes
agent: An word or phrase that expresses who or what is responsible for an action, such as ‘by the cat’ in ‘The mouse was chased by the cat’
alliteration: A set of words that all begin with the same sound
alphabet: A writing system in which a set of letters represent the individual sounds of a language
anatomy: The study of the parts of the body
anthroposemiotics: The study of human communication
antonym: A word that is opposite in meaning to another
applied linguistics: The application of linguistics to solve practical problems involving the use of language
appropriateness: The use of language that is considered acceptable in a social situation
articulatory phonetics: The branch of phonetics that studies the way speech sounds are produced by the vocal organs
ASL: American Sign Language — the deaf sign language used in the USA
auditory ossicles: The three small bones of the middle ear
auditory phonetics: The branch of phonetics that studies the way people perceive speech sound
auditory-vocal communication: The dimension of human communication which uses sound (as opposed to vision, touch, etc)
avoidance speech: A special speech style used in some languages to replace normal speech when talking to, or near, certain relatives
B
babytalk: The distinctive speech used when talking to babies
bilingualism: The ability to use two languages
blend: The result of two elements fusing to form a new word or construction, such as ‘brunch’
body language: The use of facial expressions, gestures, and body movements to communicate meaning
borrowing: A word from one language that is introduced into another
BSL: British Sign Language — the deaf sign language used in the UK
by-agent: A phrase introduced by the word ‘by’ which expresses the actor in a passive sentence in English, such as ‘by the cat’ in ‘The mouse was chased by the cat’
C
caretaker speech: The distinctive speech used by those who are taking care of others (adults or children) when addressing them
character: A sign used in a writing system, especially one that is not a letter of an alphabet, but expresses a meaning
cherology: The study of sign language
child-directed speech: The distinctive speech used by adults when talking to children
child language acquisition: The study of the way children learn their language(s)
clause: A unit of grammar that is smaller than a sentence but larger than a word or phrase
clause elements: The units which combine to make a clause, such as subject, verb, and object
clay tokens: Ancient objects made of clay showing marks that are thought to be a primitive form of writing
coherence: The logical connectedness of a use of language
collocation: The habitual co-occurrence of lexemes, such as the association of ‘green’ with ‘jealousy’
comment clause: A clause that adds a parenthetical remark to another clause, such as ‘you know’
communication: The sending and receiving of information
communication therapist: Someone who treats disorders of communication
comparative philology: The study of the historical relationships among languages
compound word: A word composed of elements that are themselves words, such as ‘flower-pot’
comprehension: The ability to understand and interpret language
computer-mediated communication: The kind of communication that results when computers are used in human interaction
connective: A form (such as ‘and’ or ‘however’) whose role is to link units of grammar
convergence: A process in which two kinds of speech influence each other by coming closer together
coordinating conjunction: A word whose function is to link two constructions, such as ‘and’
creole: A pidgin language that has developed to become the first language of a community
D
developmental psycholinguistics: The study of the acquisition of language in human beings
diacritic: A mark added to a written symbol to alter how it is pronounced
dialect: A variety of a language in which grammar and vocabulary identify the regional or social background of the user
dialectology: The study of the dialects of a language
dialogue: A use of spoken or written language between two people
discourse: A continuous stretch of spoken or written language larger than a sentence
divergence: A process in which two kinds of speech influence each other by becoming further apart
duality: The way language is structured into two levels: meaningless segments (sounds, letters) and meaningful units (e.g. words)
E
educational linguistics: The application of linguistics to language teaching and learning in educational settings
electronically mediated communication: (EMC) The kind of communication that results when computers or other electronic devices are used in human interaction
EMC: The abbreviation for electronically mediated communication:
endangered language: A language which is at risk of extinction
F
false friends: Words in different languages, or different periods of a language, that resemble each other in form but express dissimilar meanings
fatherese: The distinctive speech used by fathers when talking to young children
feedback: The reactions that people receive from those they are addressing which help them evaluate the efficiency of their communication
finger-spelling: A signing system in which each letter of the alphabet is given its own sign
forensic linguistics: The use of linguistics to investigate crimes in which language data form part of the evidence
forensic phonetics: The use of phonetics to investigate crimes in which speech data form part of the evidence
G
general stylistics: The study of the socially distinctive features of any variety of a language
genre: An identifiable category of artistic composition, especially in literature
gobbledygook: Words and sentences that are so obscure or difficult that people find them impossible to understand
gradable opposite: A pair of words expressing an opposition that can be compared or intensified, such as ‘big’ versus ‘small’
grammar: The study of the way sentences and words are constructed in a language
graphetics: The study of the making, transmission, and perception of written marks on a surface
graphic design: The effective presentation of written language on a page or screen
graphology: The study of the writing system of languages
H
haptic communication: The use of touch in communicating meaning
headword: The boldface item that introduces a dictionary entry
historical linguistics: The study of the development of language and languages over time
holophrase: An utterance that lacks grammatical structure, typical of the earliest stage of child language acquisition
hypertext link: or hyperlink: The item in an online text which, when clicked, takes the user to another online location
hyponymy: The relationship between specific and general words, where the former is included within the meaning of the latter, such as ‘dog’ is a kind of ‘animal’
I
iambic pentameter: A line of poetry consisting of ten syllables organized into five units (‘feet’ ), each of which has a weak + strong rhythm
ideational function: The use of language to refer to the people, objects, events, ideas, etc that we want to talk about
ideogram: or ideograph: A symbol used in a writing system to refer to a concept
illiteracy: Inability to read or write
incompatibility: The relationship between a set of words of related meaning where the members exclude each other, such as Monday, Tuesday, etc
infant-directed speech: The distinctive speech used when talking to infants
infix: An affix inserted inside a word to change its meaning; not used as part of the grammar of English
inflection: An affix that signals a grammatical relationship, such as the plural ending ‘-s’ in English
intonation: The use of pitch to express meaning in language
K
kinesics: The study of facial expression and bodily gesture or movement to communicate meaning
L
language acquisition device: The innate capacity of the brain to learn language, proposed as an explanation of the efficiency of child language acquisition
language activism: The activities of the people in a community aimed at ensuring the survival of their language
language change: The changes that take place within a language over a period of time
level: A dimension of language structure capable of being studied in its own terms, such as phonetics or semantics
lexeme: or lexical item: A unit of meaning in a semantic system
lexicon: The vocabulary of a language
linguistics: The science of language
lip-rounding: Giving the lips a rounded shape in articulating a speech sound
literacy: The ability to read and write
literary stylistics: The study of the distinctive features of the way language is used in literature
loanword: A word from one language that is introduced into another
logogram: or logograph: A symbol that represents a whole word or meaningful word-element
logopedist : or logopaedist: The name in some countries for someone who treats disorders of language
lower-case letters: In printing, the term used for small letters, such as ‘a’ and ‘b’; opposed to upper-case letters: (usually called capital letters:), such as ‘A’ and ‘B’.
ludic language: Playful language, as seen in puns, tongue-twisters, etc
M
matched guise: An experimental technique in which someone presents a piece of language in two authentically sounding alternative accents (‘guises’ )
meronymy: The relationship between parts and wholes, such as ‘roof’ is part of a ‘house’
minority language: A language spoken by a relatively small group within a country
mode of transmission: A medium through which a message can be communicated
monologue: A continuous stretch of speech (or its representation in writing) by a single person
monosemy: A word that has a single meaning; opposed to polysemy:
morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit of grammar, such as boy, un-, -ness, plural-s
morphemics: The study of morphemes
morphology: The study of word structure
motherese: The distinctive speech used by mothers when talking to young children
mother-in-law language: A popular name for a language in which some relatives are considered taboo and have to be addressed in a variety different from that used elsewhere
multilingualism: The use of several languages within a community
N
neurology: The study of the nervous system of the body
non-standard language: Usage that does not conform to the norms of the standard language, especially in grammar, spelling, or punctuation
non-segmental features: Features of speech or writing that extend beyond the individual vowel and consonant segments, such as intonation in speech or underlining in writing
non-verbal communication: Communication that makes no use of words, such as gestures and facial expressions
normal non-fluency: Speech characterized by hesitations and repetitions while children try to produce more advanced constructions
O
object: The element in a clause that usually expresses the recipient of an action, such as ‘the mouse’ in ‘The cat chased the mouse’
occupational dialect: A variety of language used in a profession or job, such as journalese or legal language
orthography: A general term for the study of the writing system of a language
orthophoniste: The name in French-speaking countries for someone who treats disorders of language
ossicles: The three small bones of the middle ear
P
paralanguage: Features of speech considered marginal to language in their meaning and use
parentese: The distinctive speech used by parents when talking to young children
passive vocabulary: The words that someone knows but does not use in speech or writing; contrasts with active vocabulary
passive voice:A type of sentence in which the subject receives the action and the performer of the action is represented by an agent, as in ‘The mouse was chased by the cat’ ; contrasts with active voice
personal variation: The distinctive language used by an individual
philology: The study of the historical relationships among languages
phonaesthetics: The study of the symbolic or aesthetic properties of sound
phoneme: The smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language
phonemics: The study of phonemes
phonetics: The science of speech sounds
phonology: The study of the sound system of languages
phrase: A group of words, smaller than a clause, functioning as a grammatical unit
physiology: The study of the functions of the different parts of the body
pidgin: A simplified language used to facilitate communication between people who have no common language
pitch: The auditory sensation of the height of a sound
plain language: The use of language which is intelligible to a general audience
political correctness: The use of language intended to avoid giving offence to groups within a community
polysemy: A word that has more than one meaning; opposed to monosemy
portmanteau:A word created by combining parts of two words, such as ‘ginormous’
pragmatics: The study of the factors that influence a person's choice of language and the effects that the choice conveys
prefix: A meaningful element, not itself a word, that is attached to the front of a word to make a more complex word, such as ‘un-’ in ‘unkind’
preposition: A word that precedes a noun phrase or pronoun and shows its relationship to other parts of the sentence, such as ‘on’ in ‘The book is on the table’
prescriptivism: An approach that claims to make authoritative statements about the correctness or incorrectness of a particular use of language
present continuous or progressive: A verb form that typically expresses the meaning of duration, such as ‘He is running’
productivity: The creative capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number of words and sentences
prosody: The use of pitch, loudness, tempo, and rhythm in a language
proto-conversation: An early form of communication between a baby and a caretaker which has some similarities to a conversation (such as turn-taking)
proxemics: The study of touching and interpersonal distance in human communication
pun: A play on words
punctuation: A set of written marks that give clues about the structure of sentences and how they are to be pronounced
Q
quotative: A use of language which has the function of a quotation, such as inverted commas
R
Received Pronunciation: (RP) The regionally neutral, prestige accent of British English
reduplication: A word containing a repeated element, such as ‘bow-wow’ or ‘helter-skelter’
regional variation: The use of language to show geographical identity — which part of a country someone is from
rhythm: The perceived regularity of prominent units (beats) in speech
RP: The abbreviation for Received Pronunciation, the regionally neutral, prestige accent of British English
S
segmental features: The basic units into which speech and writing can be analysed, usually described in terms of vowels and consonants
semantic field: An area of meaning identified by a set of words that define each other, such as colour or furniture
semantics: The study of meaning in language
semiotics: The study of patterned human communication in all its modes.
senescence: The normal process of change in old age
sense relations: The way the words in a semantic field relate in meaning, such as by showing sameness or oppositeness of meaning
sentence: A grammatical construction whose use is not dependent on any other structure
sign language: A system of manual communication, especially as used by the deaf
social role: A conventional mode of behaviour that a person has to adopt when holding a particular status, such as being a supervisor in a workplace
social status: The position a person holds in the social structure of a community, such as an official or a husband
social variation: The use of language to show social identity — which part of society someone is from
sociolinguistics: The study of the relationship between language and society
sound symbolism: A direct association between the sounds of a language and the properties of the world, as heard in ‘splash’ or ‘plop’
speech pathologist: Someone who treats disorders of spoken language
speech science: The study of all the factors involved in the production, transmission, and reception of speech
speech therapist: Someone who treats disorders of spoken language; also sometimes called a speech and language therapist:
split infinitive: The insertion of a word between ‘to’ and the infinitive form of the verb in English, such as ‘to boldly go’
standard language: The prestige written variety of a language, used as an educated norm by a community; language which does not conform to this norm is called non-standard:
stress-timed rhythm: A type of rhythm in which the stresses (or beats) fall at roughly regular intervals in the stream of speech
structure: The way in which a language is constructed, chiefly consisting of sounds, grammar, and vocabulary
style: The distinctive pattern of language use that characterizes an individual or a social group
stylistics: The study of variation in language use that is characteristic of individuals or social groups
subject: The element of a clause about which something is stated, such as ‘the cat’ in ‘the cat chased the mouse’ or ‘the book’ in ‘the book is on the table’
suffix: A meaningful element, not itself a word, that is attached to the end of a word to make a more complex word, such as ‘-ness’ in ‘goodness’
suprasegmental features: Features of speech that extend beyond the individual vowel and consonant segments, such as intonation
syllabary: A writing system in which the symbols represent syllables
syllable: An element of speech that acts as a unit of rhythm, usually consisting of a vowel or a vowel with accompanying consonants
syllable-timed rhythm: A type of rhythm in which there is a stress (or beat) on each syllable in the stream of speech
synonym: A word that has the same meaning as some other word
syntax: The study of sentence structure
T
taboo words: Words whose use is avoided or criticized within a society
tempo: Speed of speech
temporal variation: The use of language to show chronological identity — the age someone is, or the period someone belongs to
terms of address: The forms in a language which people use to identify each other, such as names, titles, and pronouns
textlinguistics: The study of the linguistic structure and function of pieces of language that have a stateable communicative function, such as a road sign, poem, or sports commentary
tone: The distinctive pitch level of a syllable
tone of voice: A manner of pronunciation which conveys a specific meaning, such as sarcasm or puzzlement
topic sentence: The sentence in a paragraph which most closely identifies what the paragraph is about
turn: A single contribution of a speaker to a conversation
U
ungradable opposite: A pair of words expressing an opposition that cannot be compared or intensified, such as ‘single’ versus ‘married’
upper-case letters: In printing, the term used for large (capital:) letters, such as ‘C’ and ‘D’; opposed to small or lower-case letters:, such as ‘c’ and ‘d’.
V
variety: A distinctive use of language that identifies a particular situation, such as legal, religious, or scientific varieties
vocabulary: All the words in a language
vocal organs: The parts of the body involved in the production of sounds
voiceprinting: An acoustic display of a person's voice
W
word formation: The process of creating words
word-order: The way words are arranged within sentences in a language
Z
zoösemiotics: The study of animal communication